Aging is an inevitable part of life, but what if we could slow it down – or even reverse it? Scientists are exploring the potential of stem cells to unlock the secrets of aging, offering the exciting possibility of longer and healthier lives. Through lectures and discussions, I’ve come to appreciate how stem cell research pushes the boundaries of longevity. But how realistic is this, and what role do stem cells play in the pursuit of eternal youth?

Why Do We Age?

Aging happens as our cells accumulate damage over time. DNA mutations, oxidative stress (related to too many reactive oxygen species), and the shortening of telomeres (the protective caps on our chromosomes) all contribute to tissue decline. Stem cells, which can develop into different cell types, naturally diminish with age, reducing the body’s ability to repair itself.

Stem Cells as a Fountain of Youth

Scientists are investigating whether replenishing or rejuvenating stem cells could combat aging. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), found in bone marrow and fat tissue, secrete growth factors that aid tissue repair. Studies suggest they could improve skin elasticity, reduce wrinkles, and even regenerate damaged organs. MSCs are already in clinical trials for treating age-related frailty and inflammation.

Another promising option is induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), adult cells reprogrammed into a stem-like state. In mouse studies, researchers extended lifespan and reversed signs of aging by introducing rejuvenated cells. iPSCs could replace aged or damaged cells, rejuvenating tissues without the need for donors. In discussions, we debated whether pursuing cellular youth might create societal imbalances, benefiting the wealthy while leaving others behind.

Stem Cell Therapies for Aging-Related Diseases

Stem cells might not just help with wrinkles – they could tackle diseases of aging. For instance, stem cell transplants are being explored for neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. By generating healthy neurons, scientists hope to replace the lost brain cells causing these diseases.

Stem cells also show promise for cardiovascular disease. Researchers are working on generating new heart muscle cells from iPSCs, which could be transplanted into damaged hearts. Similarly, MSCs are being tested to repair cartilage in osteoarthritis patients, offering hope for those with joint pain and reduced mobility.

Rejuvenating the Skin and Immune System

One of the most visible signs of aging is skin deterioration. Stem cell-based treatments, like exosome therapies (using stem cell-derived vesicles filled with growth factors), aim to boost collagen production, improve skin texture, and enhance overall skin resilience.

Stem cell therapies may also rejuvenate the immune system. The thymus, which produces immune cells, shrinks with age, weakening immunity. Researchers are exploring whether stem cell injections could regenerate thymic tissue, restoring immune function and boosting longevity.

The Ethical and Practical Challenges

Despite the promise, stem cell therapies pose ethical and logistical challenges. While iPSCs bypass the controversy of embryonic stem cells, safety remains a concern. Unchecked cell growth could cause cancer, and immune responses to transplanted cells must be addressed. The technology is costly and primarily accessible through clinical trials, raising questions about equitable access – a point that sparked intense class discussions.

From a societal perspective, extended lifespans prompt complex questions: are we prepared for a world where people live to 120 or beyond? How might this affect resources and healthcare systems? These conversations made me reflect on whether the goal should be radical life extension or enhancing health span so people age with dignity and vitality.

A Glimpse Into the Future

While we’re not close to immortality, stem cells offer a promising path to healthier aging. As research progresses, therapies could shift from experimental to routine, helping people live longer, more vibrant lives. The idea of eternal youth may not be science fiction forever – with stem cells, it just might become reality.

Would you want to know what you’d look like at 150? The future of aging is unfolding, and stem cells are at the heart of the revolution.

Sources

1. DNA damage by oxidative stress: Measurement strategies for two genomes https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S2468202017301341-gr1_lrg.jpg (accessed: 06/03/2025)
2. Stem Cells and Acellular Preparations in Bone Regeneration/Fracture Healing: Current Therapies and Future Directions https://www.mdpi.com/cells/cells-13-01045/article_deploy/html/images/cells-13-01045-g001.png (accessed 07/03/2025)
3. What is the therapeutic potential of exosomes? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NQeY_oIMNII&ab_channel=ScienceAnimated (accessed 07/03/2025)

For many, their only exposure to prosthetics has been from film, such as Captain Hook in Peter Pan – however, reality is far from fiction. I feel many people don’t know the truth of prosthetics and orthotics; but they’re not the mystery they seem! I myself have used an orthosis, needing a knee brace after a figure skating injury. 

With the rise of social media, it’s becoming easier than ever to share your life with others – whether that be your opinions on the latest album release, or an account of your personal experiences. One use of social media that I find fascinating is how TikTok is being used as a tool for education on prosthetics – a tool I used when wanting to learn more following the UOSM2031 lectures.

While social media can be damaging, it can also be an incredibly useful tool for education. It is great to know there are creators out there dedicated to increasing the public knowledge of prosthetics – and I’ve loved learning from them!

What’s your favourite social media platform for educational videos, and who is your favourite prosthetics content creator?

All videos are sourced from TikTok, following the sites Terms of Service and Privacy Policy. All information on case studies is sourced from the individuals own TikTok page, as well as my own opinions.

The future’s here! But who’s in control…

Imagine this: it’s 2080. Your heart isn’t just a meagre organ but a 3D printed wonder. You look down at your new, bionic arm, which is not just a replacement but an upgrade. With rapid advances in stem cell research, engineered tissues, prosthetics, and bionics, the lines between the human body and technology are increasingly blurring, arguably for the better.

But with these innovations comes a huge question… if a company builds part of your body, do you still own it?

Patents and Parts- Can Someone Own a Piece of You?

Oddly enough, body parts have been the centre of legal disputes before. In 1990, John Moore, a resident of Seattle, USA, was given treatment for hairy-celled leukaemia, where he was advised to undergo surgery to remove his spleen. He was also asked for permission to contribute to medical research, which he explicitly refused. Moore sued his doctor after discovering that his cells were being used for research without his permission, and resulted in a lucrative patent. The court ruled that he had no rights over his cells once they removed from his body: he lost. A summary of this interesting case study has been attached in a video below.

Fast forward to 2025: say a company patents your lab grown heart, or bionic arm; do they now own this technology that’s inside you? Various companies already limit repairs to medical devices such as pacemakers or implants, meaning you can’t legally fix them without their approval.

Cancel the Netflix- You Need to Subscribe to your Heart!

Here’s a concerning thought: what if your life changing, revolutionary implant came with a monthly fee? Indeed, this seems a dystopian concept, but not entirely far fetched. A range of pacemaker manufacturers already have restrictions on accessing software updates, and there are concerns that future medical technology such as smart prosthetics could adopt a subscription models.

A range of ethical questions are ultimately raised from this:

• What happens if someone cannot afford their payments? Does this simply result in a loss of function of their vital organ/limb? Will this lead to death?
• Should companies be permitted to charge for continued access to essential body parts?

A Fine Line- Treatment and Enhancement

Its almost inevitable with the pace that technology is moving, bionic limbs will eventually supersede our natural ones. Should athletes be using these in various sports? A new brain implant has the ability to boost and promote intelligence- how do we decide who has access to this… the big CEOs? Or the struggling students?

This all touches on elements of transhumanism (a video explaining this attached below), social inequalities and legal restrictions.

Conclusion: Your Body. Your Rights. But for How Long?

The idea that a company can own a part of your body might sound crazy, but we’re already heading in that direction. From patented lab-grown organs, to bionic limbs with restricted upgrades, the future of medicine is becoming entangled with corporate control, legal loopholes, and ethical issues.

And that’s an issue.

With spectacular technological advances such as bionics and prosthetics having power to transform lives we have a clear underlying risk: the commodification of our bodies. By not pushing for clear legal protections now, we’re looking at a future where vital medical technology is obstructed behind paywalls, where our own body data is exploited, and where only certain demographics such as the wealthy can partake in ‘human enhancement;’ controversial in itself.

So… who owns your body? Right now, you. But that might not be the case for much longer. Its time for society, including scientists, lawyers, and everyone in between, to ensure the future of engineered body parts is driven by human rights, not corporate profits.

The idea that an individual could be identically replicated has captivated popular culture for decades. A clone is defined in biology as an organism or cell, produced asexually from one ancestor, to which they are genetically identical. Appearing in the likes of the Star Wars franchise, Oblivion, and more recently Mickey-17 released just this month, clones in science fiction films are often portrayed in a way that challenges this definition. When reproductive cloning and Dolly the sheep were introduced in Nick Evans’ lecture on stem cells, I asked myself the following questions:

• To what extent does cloning exist?
• Why haven’t we cloned humans?
• What are the applications of cloning?

Animal cloning – Dolly the sheep

Dolly essentially had three mothers, with the DNA from the egg cell of a Scottish Blackface sheep being replaced by the DNA from a Finn-Dorset sheep. The resulting hybrid cells were placed in the uterus of another Scottish Blackface, and astonishingly, Dolly was born with identical genes to the nucleus donor sheep. In theory, the exact same procedure could be completed with humans. It should be noted that it took 227 attempts to produce one sheep clone. Even today, mammalian cloning is highly inefficient.

Ethical Considerations

Following the birth of Dolly, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) immediately banned cloning. It goes without saying that cloning humans would raise innumerable ethical issues. Below are the most notable (click on the arrows for more information):

Therapeutic Cloning

Therapeutic cloning is a practical method which in my opinion avoids the ethical issues raised above. It also involves nuclear transfer, but the cells are never implanted. Instead, the embryo is cloned to produce stem cells. Since these would be genetically identical to the donor, these stem cells are less likely to be rejected by the patient.

Conclusion

It seems to me that human cloning is inefficient, immoral, and mostly pointless. The replicas we see in science fiction don’t reflect biology, and with therapeutic cloning, there is no need to clone entire humans for treatment.

Press a button, print an organ. Perhaps the idea is not as Sci-Fi as it sounds. 3D bioprinting is an advancing field that uses layer-by-layer positioning of cells and biomaterials to produce living scaffolds for a variety of uses.

Depending on the qualities needed in the final product, techniques and materials vary. All start with a digital 3D model produced using computer aided design (CAD) software. One powerful feature of this is that CT and MRI scan data from patient can be used to tailor, for an example a tracheal graft, to personalised dimensions.

Next, the structure can be bioprinted using a bioink. Things to consider when choosing a bioink are the cells, biomaterial and growth factors included. Biomaterials such as alginate and polyvinyl-alcohol provide a structural scaffold for new cells to grow on. The ideal biomaterial must be biocompatible (not trigger an immune response) and biodegrade at the same rate as the new tissue grows.                                     

Cells and growth factors goes hand in hand, to print a bone graft you would use mesenchymal stem cells and a corresponding growth factor or chemical that encourages the pathway of differentiation looked for. The bioink used can dictate the printing method. Three popular approaches include inkjet-based, laser assisted and extrusion-based bioprinting. Each has their own set of opportunities and challenges.

Potential Uses

• Organ replacement
• Tissue grafts such as skin, bone muscle and cartilage
• Organs on a chip – used for drug and vaccination screening
• Drug delivery scaffolds
• Building disease models

Moving Forward

Can the body heal itself? The power of stem cells in a new era of healing

Stem Cells are cells that can self-renew and differentiate, this is crucial for the development of an organism as well as repair after injury (Mayo Clinic, no date). As a cornerstone of regenerative medicine, they offer innovative new solutions to treating diseases with limited treatment options such as restoring damaged organs and tissues (Wang et al. 2024).

Understanding Stem Cells

It is important to understand the different types of stem cell

• Multipotent: The ability to differentiate into more than one cell type in the body
• Pluripotent: The ability to differentiate into all of the various cell types in the body

Pluripotent and multipotent stem cells originate from different sources. Pluripotent stem cells are derived from early-stage human embryos, these are capable of dividing without differentiation and can develop into the primary three germ layers. In comparison, adult stem cells can only differentiate into the cell type of the tissue that they are found (Mayo Clinic, 2025). Researchers have developed an induced pluripotent stem cell, similar to embryonic stem cells, but, formed by transferring embryonic genes to a somatic cell (Mayo Clinic, 2025).

What is Regenerative Medicine

Regenerative medicine is a branch of medicine that focuses on healing or replacing organs and tissues damaged by factors such as disease or trauma. ‘Healing’ is achieved by replacing missing tissue structurally or functionally using stem cells such as mesenchymal stem cells induced pluripotent. This is achieved through materials as well as de novo-generated cells. It is also possible to leverage the body’s inate healing response, however humans lack regenerative capacity (Mao and Mooney, 2015). Regenerative medicine has the potential to treat neurodegenerative diseases as well as heart failure, for example.

Stem Cells in Regenerative Medicine

Adult stem cells such as mesenchymal and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) , exhibit multilineage differentiation capacities as well as immunomodulatory properties (Li, Luanpitpong, and Kheolamai, 2022). There have been successful treatments using these stem cells for bone and cartilage regeneration as well as spinal cord injuries and diabetes (Hoang et al., 2022). allowing them to differentiate into required tissues and treat injuries, inflammation, and age-related disorders through regeneration of muscle, cartilage, and muscle regeneration. Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), embryonic stem cells (ESCs), and (iPSCs) can differentiate into any cell type so have a very high potential (Wang et al., 2024).

Challenges Associated

However, there remain risks associated with stem cell use such as a heightened risk of tumor formation, and immune rejection, and it’s not guaranteed that the cells will survive post-translation.

The treatments with the most therapeutic potential use embryonic stem cells, due to their pluripotency. However, the obtainment of ESCs is controversial due to the destruction of human embryos, many people object to religious and ethic principles (Margiana et al., 2022). Stem cell therapies also have a high cost meaning availability is restricted to wealthier patients (Hoang et al., 2022).

Conclusion

The advancement of regenerative medicine presents exciting opportunities such as within genetic modification, combining stem cells with drug delivery as well as biomaterial scaffolds (Li, Luanpitpong, and Kheolamai, 2022). However, currently stem cells remain at the forefront for conditions such as cardiovascular disease and organ regeneration. However, further research is needed to combat concerns such as immune rejection and tumor risks. For this treatment to become mainstream steps will have to be taken to address high costs and accessibility issues as well as the need for a global regulatory body to monitor its use.

Bibliography

Hoang, Duc M., Phuong T. Pham, Trung Q. Bach, Anh T. L. Ngo, Quyen T. Nguyen, Trang T. K. Phan, Giang H. Nguyen, et al. ‘Stem Cell-Based Therapy for Human Diseases’. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy 7, no. 1 (6 August 2022): 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-022-01134-4.

Li, Jingting, Sudjit Luanpitpong, and Pakpoom Kheolamai. ‘Editorial: Adult Stem Cells for Regenerative Medicine: From Cell Fate to Clinical Applications’. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology 10 (31 October 2022). https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2022.1069665.

Mao, Angelo S., and David J. Mooney. ‘Regenerative Medicine: Current Therapies and Future Directions’. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 47 (24 November 2015): 14452–59. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1508520112.

Margiana, Ria, Alexander Markov, Angelina O. Zekiy, Mohammed Ubaid Hamza, Khalid A. Al-Dabbagh, Sura Hasan Al-Zubaidi, Noora M. Hameed, et al. ‘Clinical Application of Mesenchymal Stem Cell in Regenerative Medicine: A Narrative Review’. Stem Cell Research & Therapy 13, no. 1 (28 July 2022): 366. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13287-022-03054-0.

Mayo Clinic. ‘Answers to Your Questions about Stem Cell Research’. Accessed 5 March 2025. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art-20048117.

Mayo Clinic. ‘Answers to Your Questions about Stem Cell Research’. Accessed 5 March 2025. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bone-marrow-transplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art-20048117.

Wang, Jipeng, Gang Deng, Shuyi Wang, Shuang Li, Peng Song, Kun Lin, Xiaoxiang Xu, and Zuhong He. ‘Enhancing Regenerative Medicine: The Crucial Role of Stem Cell Therapy’. Frontiers in Neuroscience 18 (8 February 2024). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2024.1269577.

“Why can’t we just print more organs?” Overcoming the organ shortage crisis with Bioengineering

Globally, the demand for organ transplants exceeds supply. In the United States as of 2021 116,566 patients were waiting for an organ transplant, 6 564 patients died waiting for an organ. Despite this, only 41 354 transplants were performed (Kupiec-Weglinski 2022). 3D bioprinting is an emerging technology that offers a promising solution by creating bioengineered organs and tissues, reducing patients left waiting for life-saving treatments and reliance on human donors (Bose, 2023)

3D bioprinting is an innovative technology that involves printing layer by layer, combining biomaterials, bio-inks, and living cells (Panja et al., 2022). This provides an opportunity to engineer human tissues and organs for medical use such as :

• Drug testing on human models (more reliable and reduces demand for animal models)
• Custom implants
• Reducing the waitlist for replacement human organs

How It Works

There are 4 main bioprinting techniques

(Panja et al., 2022)

Applications

Recently there have been significant breakthroughs in replicating complex human organs especially hollow organs such as the lungs, heart, and digestive system. Despite the immense progress, technical challenges still persist.

Bioprinting Lungs 

• Lung diseases such as COPD and COVID-19 have increased demand for lung transplants. The focus remains on the airways and alveoli.  Advancements have been made in the development of artificial alveolar models using inkjet printing, hydrogels, and synthetic polymers.  Despite this, these have not been applied to organ replacement yet (Panja et al., 2022). Achieving the highly complex structure and function of alveoli is still a significant hurdle. 

3D Printed Heart Tissue 

•  A heart has been bioprinted including blood vessels. This is crucial when developing the functionality of replacement organs. This was achieved using a technology called Coaxial Sacridicial Writing in Functional Tissue. This adds layers of real blood vessels, blood supply is essential for sustaining all bioprinted organs (Brownell, L. 2024).

Digestive System 

• Researchers have also seen developments in the bioprinting of the digestive system, including stomach, intestines and bile ducts. There is enormous potential for this to revolutionize drug testing and reduce reliance on animal models. However, barriers remain due to the inability to replicate the mechanical processes of the digestive system such as peristalsis(Panja et al., 2022. 

Challenges and Ethical Concerns

• Cost: Bioprinting is an expensive technology, with significant costs from research, development, and clinical trials. As well as the extensive laboratory equipment, this means that the early technology is likely to be limited to the wealthy (Bose, P., 2023).
• Tissue Vascularisation: functional blood vessels are imperative for delivering oxygen and nutrients, and keeping tissues alive. Functional blood vessels are challenging due to their microscopic size and complexity (Panja et al., 2022).
• Regulation and Safety: international regulations are necessary to ensure safety, efficacy and ethics have been taken into consideration (Brownell, L. 2024).

Conclusion

3D printing has the potential to make fully functional, transplantable organs a reality. There needs to be a focus on personalization to reduce the risk of elimination. However, vascularisation will remain a significant barrier to applicability. However, the potential to remove donor waitlists and animal models.

Could we be entering an era of on-demand organ transplants?

Bibliography

Bose, P. (2023). Bioprinting Organs: A Look into the Future of Transplantation. News-Medical. Available at: https://www.news-medical.net/health/Bioprinting-Organs-A-Look-into-the-Future-of-Transplantation.aspx [04/03/25].

Brownell, L. (2024). 3D-printed blood vessels bring artificial organs closer to reality. Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences. Available at: https://seas.harvard.edu/news/2024/08/3d-printed-blood-vessels-bring-artificial-organs-closer-reality [04/03/25].

Panja, N., Maji, S., Choudhuri, S., Ali, K. A., & Hossain, C. M. (2022). 3D Bioprinting of Human Hollow Organs. AAPS PharmSciTech, 23(5), p.139. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1208/s12249-022-02279-9 [04/03/25].

Kupiec-Weglinski, Jerzy W. ‘Grand Challenges in Organ Transplantation’. Frontiers in Transplantation 1 (6 May 2022). https://doi.org/10.3389/frtra.2022.897679. [04/03/25]

“We don’t appreciate what we have until it’s gone.” This phrase resonated deeply with me during the lecture on joint replacements. We often take for granted the ability to move and stand without pain—until one day, we can’t. Millions of lives have been transformed by the invention of knee replacement, restoring people’s movement but also their independence. But what are the challenges of these replacements and what does their future look like?

Evolution of knee replacements

The idea of replacing damaged joints isn’t new and has been around for hundreds of years where ancient civilisations experimented with rudimentary prosthetics. Modern knee replacement surgery, or total knee arthroplasty (TKA) however, only emerged in the mid-20th century. Advances in materials, surgical precision, and rehabilitation have meant that patients today can regain almost all lost function. Whilst these improvements have been greatly beneficial, there are still risks and limitations involved.

image: Fixed vs mobile bearing of knee replacements https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-16-8591-0_3

More Than Just a Mechanical Problem?

Engineering is at the core of a knee replacement where surgeons remove damaged bone and replace it with metal and synthetic components that are specifically designed to mimic the joint’s natural function. The real challenge however, is in how the body allows the artificial joint to work within our bodies, where ligaments, tendons, and muscles must adjust to the artificial joint, and imbalances in force distribution can lead to complications such as implant loosening. The risk of rejection is also prevalent as the body may recognise the implant as foreign, triggering low-grade inflammation that can affect the implant’s longevity.

As with any surgery there is the emotional and psychological side. How does it feel having to relearn simple movements such as walking? Regaining autonomy can be life-changing, but rehabilitation can be long and demanding.

Challenges and Ethical Considerations

Despite its success and widespread use, it still has its limitations.

• Longevity of implants: A knee prosthesis only lasts 15–20 years and so younger patients may require multiple complex surgeries.
• Access to prosthetics: Not everyone can afford a knee replacement. Is it right that orthopaedic treatments are more readily available to those with financial means?
• Surgical risks: Infections and rejection are still major risks.

In a recent BBC article from last year, Heather considered herself “lucky” to have had her left knee replaced after two years of pain. This article highlights a wider systemic issue in healthcare-availability. The question remains as how can we solve this?

This shows that there is still a long way to go when talking about this type of technology and highlights the need for continuous innovation in this area.

Future of Knee Replacements: Can We Do Any Better?

With recent advancements in areas such as 3D printing and robotic-assisted surgery, the future of knee replacements is still promising. One day, could we use cartilage grown in a lab to produce personalised implants? And could AI-driven rehabilitation programs increase patients’ recovery outcomes?

This lecture changed the way I think about joint replacements as a field that intersects engineering, biology, and ethics. It made me think about the the privilege of mobility and the importance of continuous innovation in medical technology.