The University of Southampton

Month: March 2025

Who Would Of Thought Tiny Bubbles Could Treat Cancer?

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The use of microbubbles within cancer treatment sounds comical, but these little bundles of joy can be used for a variety of medical applications. Over the last decade, these have been praised as the future of Cancer diagnosis and treatment and represent a safe and non-invasive alternative to Chemotherapy. I first heard about Microbubbles at a Workshop as part of my University, and it fascinated me that Microbubbles could kill cancer cells while sparing healthy ones, unlike Chemotherapy. This piqued my interest, which made me want to learn how they can be used to treat cancer within patients.

What are Microbubbles?

At the Workshop, I learned that Microbubbles are small bubbles (0.5–10 μm) consisting of a phospholipid outer layer and gas core and are used clinically during Ultrasound Imaging. When injected during Ultrasound Imaging, they resonate vigorously under the transducer, reflecting waves more effectively in body tissues and increasing imaging sensitivity.

[9] An image showing the structure of a microbubble responding to ultrasound waves produced by a Transducer during ultrasound scanning in Pregnancy

However, once researchers realised these bubbles could move around the body safely, drug delivery in the treatment of cancer was greatly considered.

So Why Are These Tiny Bubbles So Effective In Treating Cancer?

Currently, chemotherapy drugs are injected into the blood and destroy cancer cells, however, this can also result in the death of healthy cells, leading to shocking side effects such as nausea and hair loss.

Microbubbles, on the other hand, can target smaller doses of chemotherapy drugs to cancer cells alone due to their Phospholipid shell, preventing the damage of healthy cells, reducing side effects, allowing patients to recover quicker.

“By using microbubbles and ultrasound we can control when and where a drug gets released, and crucially also distribute it throughout a tumour”

– Oxford scientist Eleanor Stride To WIRED

[6]

However, within aggressive types of cancer, low oxygen levels in tumours cause resistance to chemotherapy drugs, so to resolve this, Microbubbles can be filled with oxygen to improve the delivery of the drug and its ability to kill more aggressive cancer cells.

I was glad to read that the use of oxygen within microbubbles has also seen some effectiveness in reducing Cancer within rats, however, this is still within the pre-clinical research stage. Overall, there is some promise, but it was shocking to read that a separate stroke study revealed safety concerns when high dosages caused haemorrhaging in two patients, showing that parameters of ultrasound radiation and the number of microbubbles when applied should be evaluated to prevent this from ever happening again.

So Microbubbles May Have The Potential To Cure Cancer?

Despite this, many reports have reported positive results within the use of Microbubbles, giving it the potential to save many lives. At first, I found it comical that Microbubbles could be used to treat cancer, but my mind has seriously changed after reading different articles and papers within this field.

I found it fascinating when Oxford scientist Dr Stride told New Scientist that “If you expose the blood-brain barrier to bubbles and ultrasound, you can temporarily and reversibly enhance its permeability, which is potentially interesting for a lot of brain treatments”, which made me believe that Microbubbles deserves further research as it may also have the potential to protect brain cells from dying. I’m excited to witness what I’ve called the ‘bubble revolution’ taking shape within the NHS, and seeing the countless lives that will be transformed thanks to this ground-breaking research.

“Combining oxygen-carrying microbubbles with ultrasound-triggered delivery to solid tumours is a novel approach to enhancing tumour oxygenation and sensitivity to radiation, and it deserves further study,”

Dr. Bernhard Eric Bernhard, Ph.D., chief of the Radiotherapy Development Branch in NCI’s Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis.

Bibliography

[1]

says CP. What are Microbubbles? [Internet]. News-Medical.net. 2018. Available from: https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-are-Microbubbles.aspx

[2]

New Portfolio. Editor’s choice: microbubbles [Internet]. Nature. 2022 [cited 2025 Mar 27]. Available from: https://www.nature.com/collections/edfggagdej

[3]

NCI Staff. Using Oxygen “Microbubbles” To Improve Radiation Therapy – National Cancer Institute [Internet]. www.cancer.gov. 2018. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2018/microbubbles-radiation-breast-cancer

[4]

Medeiros J. Using microbubbles to target cancer tumors [Internet]. WIRED. 2017 [cited 2025 Mar 27]. Available from: https://www.wired.com/story/cancer-bubble/

[5]

Hu Q, Zhang Y, Fu L, Xi Y, Ye L, Yang X, et al. Progress and preclinical application status of ultrasound microbubbles. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology [Internet]. 2024 Feb [cited 2024 Oct 2];92:105312. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1773224723011644

[6]

Leeds Alumini. Microbubbles Animation [Internet]. Youtu.be. 2025 [cited 2025 Mar 27]. Available from: https://youtu.be/vXjeJQy6V_M?si=fJBXRXIMWAt58_sf

[7]

Spencer B. The tiny bubbles filled with drugs that could transform cancer treatment [Internet]. Mail Online. Daily Mail; 2015 [cited 2025 Mar 27]. Available from: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3123944/The-tiny-bubbles-filled-drugs-transform-cancer-treatment-Findings-reduce-effects-chemotherapy.html

[8]

Macrae F. Bubbles “could deliver stroke drugs directly to the brain” [Internet]. Mail Online. Daily Mail; 2010 [cited 2025 Mar 27]. Available from: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1328644/Bubbles-deliver-stroke-drugs-directly-brain.html

[9]

Rumney R. Workshop – Stem cell regenerative medicine – Robin Rumney [Internet]. Blackboard. 2025 [cited 2025 Mar 27]. Available from: https://blackboard.soton.ac.uk/ultra/courses/_228111_1/outline/edit/document/_7135192_1?courseId=_228111_1&view=content&state=view

Uploading… Hope: Neural Implants and Memory restoration

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“Memory is not just the imprint of the past upon us; it is the keeper of what we are, the sum of what we have been.” – Lois Lowry

The purpose of life has been debated for centuries, with many suggesting it lies in making memories- unique experiences that define our identities. But what if those memories fade? For millions of people with Alzheimer’s, memory loss can feel like losing parts of themselves. Inspired by the tissue engineering lecture, I wondered if regenerative technologies could not only restore bodily functions, but also cognitive abilities, such as memory.

Neural implants are showing promise in restoring memories and repairing damaged neural pathways. However, as these technologies advance, they raise significant ethical dilemmas. Could memory restoration extend to memory manipulation? What risks might arise from altering an individual’s memories and, in turn, their identity? This blog will explore the science behind neural implants and the ethical concerns surrounding memory manipulation.

Understanding Neural Implants

Neural implants create a direct link between the brain and external devices, using electrodes implanted in regions like the hippocampus, vital for memory formation and storage [2]. In neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, where neural circuits are damaged [3], these implants stimulate affected areas, enhancing synaptic activity and promoting neural plasticity.

Image source: IEEE Spectrum – ‘How do Neural Implants Work?’ [1]

What intrigues me is how these devices can learn electrical patterns between neurons, potentially restoring lost cognitive functions. Recent advancements like deep brain stimulation (DBS) and multi-input multi-output (MIMO) systems have shown promise in improving memory and slowing cognitive decline in experimental models. The potential of neural implants to repair and enhance memory continues to fuel my interest in this exciting field.

DBS in Action

An inspiring example of DBS in action comes from the case of an 85-year-old woman, shared in a Medical News Today article which you can find here. After Alzheimer’s caused memory loss, she struggled with daily tasks such as preparing meals. However, after two years of DBS treatment, involving electrodes implanted in her brain to stimulate memory-related areas, she regained her independence. The video below offers a personal glimpse into her journey, offering a testament to the potential of neurostimulation therapies in restoring cognitive function.

As promising as neural implants are for memory restoration, they also raise ethical questions about their potential consequences, especially when it comes to manipulating memories and altering one’s identity.

Manipulating Memory and Identity

Whilst researching neural implants, I encountered an article that touched on the uncertainty of MIMO systems in real life. One concern is how we replicate the personalised selectivity of memory – how do we filter out life experiences that aren’t important, and who decides which memories matter? (Full article here) These questions highlight the ethical dilemmas of memory manipulation, especially regarding identity. In Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, characters erase painful memories, but the film illustrates the risks of tampering with memory, which could unintentionally erase essential aspects of who we are. With neural implants, the possibility of altering memories raises significant concerns about the control we have over our identities, especially when we are unsure how technology will make these decisions.

Personally, while the potential to help those with memory loss is immense, I believe we must approach this technology with caution. Memory is too central to our humanity to risk losing its authenticity in the pursuit of progress.

References:

  1. How Do Neural Implants Work? – IEEE Spectrum [Internet]. [cited 2025 Mar 23]. Available from: https://spectrum.ieee.org/what-is-neural-implant-neuromodulation-brain-implants-electroceuticals-neuralink-definition-examples
  2. MIT Technology Review [Internet]. [cited 2025 Mar 26]. A memory prosthesis could restore memory in people with damaged brains. Available from: https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/09/06/1059032/memory-prosthesis-damaged-brains/
  3. Koroshetz WJ, Mucke L. Neurodegenerative Diseases: Where Are We Not Looking for Answers? In: Nikolich K, Hyman SE, editors. Translational Neuroscience: Toward New Therapies [Internet]. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press; 2015 [cited 2025 Mar 27]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK569699/

The lab-grown brain: engineering neural tissue

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Neurodegenerative disease has interested me for a while. Having had family with dementia and multiple sclerosis, I’ve known about them from a young age. After Nick Evan’s tissue engineering lecture, I thought about using tissue engineering to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Could we use biomaterials, 3D printing, or stem cells to regenerate lost or damaged neurones?

What are the possibilities?

Use of hydrogel for neural tissue engineering(5)

I began to look into how tissue engineering could be useful in treatment of these diseases, and found many approaches. For example, 3D printing bio-scaffolds- structures that allow cell growth and mimic the extracellular matrix. Essentially, a 3D structure which allows neurones to grow in the brain. The scaffold needs to be able to maintain integrity during implantation, not be toxic, allow neuronal migration and proliferation, allow electrochemical communication, and release substances in a controlled manner. One class of materials that looks promising is smart hydrogels. Due to their high water content, they mimic the soft tissue environment and respond to external stimuli. The scaffolds can release growth factors and provide stem cells for nerve regeneration. However, research is still in early stages, as so far, only collagen has been useful for nerve regeneration and hasn’t been implanted in patients. If research advanced, patients with neurodegenerative diseases could have this scaffold implanted to regenerate lost neurones (1).

One unique issue is that the adult brain is designed against neuronal regeneration. Neurones don’t regenerate once they’re lost and there are cell-secreted molecules which make sure of this. Any attempts to regrow neuronal tissue will face this problem and will need to avoid attack from microglia, the brain’s immune cells (2). If you want to introduce foreign material to a brain, you need a strategic and delicate approach.

Mini-brains to use as models?

Mini-brain (6)

Another interesting idea I found is that we could create mini-brains from stem cells and engineer them into neurones. This organoid could be used to model diseases like Alzheimer’s and test different treatments on it (3). Alzheimer’s disease is characterised by the build-up of amyloid plaques and tau in the brain (4). With mini-brains, mechanisms can be studied, and drugs can be tested to see if they reduce amyloid and tau build-up. Mini-brains could not only help us understand the disease, but could also be revolutionary for personalised medicine. If we use stem cells from individual patients, a personalised mini-brain could be created, allowing better treatment. This is such an exciting and innovative approach which highlights the possibilities of neural tissue engineering, and if successful in Alzheimer’s treatment, it can be used for other diseases.

What about the ethics?

It is also important to consider ethics in this research. If we get closer to engineering a lab-grown brain, could it have consciousness and feel pain and emotion? Also, current research aims to treat disease and injury, but could it be used to enhance cognitive abilities? Research is still far from these realities, but considering and putting measures in place ahead of time might not be in vain. My research into this topic exposed me to interesting ideas and I will follow the research to keep updated on how neural tissue engineering advances, and how ethics plays into the research being done.

Sources

  1. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10302050/
  2. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2019.0505
  3. https://www.thenila.com/blog/innovative-mini-brains-could-revolutionize-alzheimers-treatment
  4. https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/about-dementia/types-dementia/alzheimers-disease
  5. https://jbiomedsci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12929-018-0491-8
  6. https://health.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/industry/washington-3d-mini-brains-developed-in-lab/50995518

More metal than Terminator – the story of my nan

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Growing up I spent a lot of time with my nan – something I always noticed was a faint ‘tick, tick, tick…’ coming from her. As I became older, she explained to me this was because she’d had some big surgeries and part of her heart was now made of metal (we used to joke that she was like iron man or the terminator). Her heart valves had become leaky, meaning they had to be replaced with mechanical valves in an open-heart surgery at Southampton General hospital. Because of my nan, I’ve always had a personal interest in how we use prosthetics in the heart.

Prior to the surgery, my nan was given the choice between mechanical or biological valves, each with their own pros and cons. Biological valves typically last 10-15 years while mechanical valves can last a lifetime, making mechanical the go-to for patients under 65. Her team opted for mechanical valves so she wouldn’t need yet another risky open-heart surgery later down the line. 1

Figure 1: Diagram of the heart valves, alongside biological and mechanical valve replacements.2

Biological 0 – Mechanical 1

Figure 2: Video showing how mechanical valves work.3

Despite this clear win for mechanical valves, they come with a major drawback – being prone to causing blood clots, which could lead to heart attacks or strokes. As such, patients with mechanical heart valves must take anticoagulants for the rest of their lives.

For my nan, this meant she had to take warfarin and required blood testing (by INR) every week to maintain the right ‘thickness’ of blood – too thick and you risk blood clots, too thin and you risk uncontrollable bleeding.4

Biological 1 – Mechanical 1

Biological valves not needing anticoagulation is an obvious score, however, there’s issues with xenotransplantation to consider. The majority of valves come from pigs or cows, meaning concerns are raised for animal welfare. To ensure the animal is healthy enough to provide a ‘safe’ transplant, they must be kept in sterile and confined laboratory conditions. In some ways this may be better than the conditions livestock have, but it’s still lacking for the animal’s nature. Having ‘good ethics’ is absolutely a requirement here.5

Figure 3: Video showing how a biological valve works. 6

Biological 1 – Mechanical 2

The future of prosthetic heart valves

Figure 4: Video showing the TAVI procedure7

These are only a few of the positives and negatives for each traditional type of heart valve. It’s a complex decision and will depend entirely on the patient. However, in the time since my nan got her valves replaced, science and medicine has advanced. Open-heart surgery is still the norm for valve replacement, but transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) can now be used to avoid the obvious risks of open-heart surgery.

Another development is tissue engineered heart valves. This involves taking a scaffold which is seeded with stem cells and then then grown in a bioreactor before implantation. This would avoid the hazards associated with anticoagulation for mechanical valves, and the ethical issues of animal biological valves – and could grow along with the development in paediatric patients. Tissue engineered valves have not yet reached the clinical trials stage, but research is developing every day.8

Figure 5: Comparison between native, biological, mechanical and tissue engineered heart valves9

With the heart being such an important organ, any improvements to the current procedures for replacement heart valve prosthetics are hugely beneficial. I’ve loved finding out more about how research is advancing in an ever-present field in mine and my family’s lives. One day I might be telling the future generations about how scientists grew new heart valves in a lab for me!

References:

  1. BHF. How do replacement heart valves work?, <https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/medical/replacement-heart-valves> (2019). ↩︎
  2. Image source: https://heartsurgeryinfo.com/types-mechanical-heart-valves/ ↩︎
  3. Video source: https://youtu.be/hmU7UtzxowU ↩︎
  4. Catterall, F., Ames, P. R. & Isles, C. Warfarin in patients with mechanical heart valves. BMJ 371, m3956 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m3956 ↩︎
  5. Rollin, B. E. Ethical and Societal Issues Occasioned by Xenotransplantation. Animals (Basel) 10(2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10091695 ↩︎
  6. Video source: https://youtu.be/ojW7wZRF7Cg ↩︎
  7. Video source: https://youtu.be/q6erYCbZGMQ ↩︎
  8. Mendelson, K. & Schoen, F. J. Heart valve tissue engineering: concepts, approaches, progress, and challenges. Ann Biomed Eng 34, 1799-1819 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-006-9163-z ↩︎
  9. Image source: https://mirm-pitt.net/tehvalve/ ↩︎

CRISPR-Cas9: A cure or a threat?

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Contents

Copy. Delete. Paste. Three words we all subconsciously think as we comb through text during our daily lives. Three words that I’ve been repeating endlessly as I spend countless hours cutting and pasting lines of code, desperately trying to make my third-year university project work. Combining the realisation of what an invaluable yet simple tool we have everyday access to and my studies in Biomedical Engineering, I began wondering if we could apply a similar gadget to our own DNA, removing any sequences we deem “undesirable” and replacing them with something of our choosing.

Available: https://stock.adobe.com/uk/search?k=paste+icon (Accessed: 23/03/25)

This led me to the discovery of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, also known as CRISPR, which allows us to do exactly that, opening up a world of opportunities to cure disease as well as further the abilities of other biotechnologies – you can read more about the potential of a fascinating combination of stem cells and CRISPR-Cas9 here!

How does it work?

See below a brief video which explains how CRISPR-Cas9 is capable of editing our DNA!

Transcript: In a document, if we suspect we’ve misspelled a word we can use the find function to highlight the error and correct it or delete it. Within our DNA that function is taken on by a system called CRISPR/Cas9. CRISPR is short for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats. CRISPR consists of two components – the Cas9 protein that can cut DNA and a guide RNA that can recognise the sequence of DNA to be edited. To use CRISPR/Cas9, scientists first identify the sequence of the human genome that’s causing a health problem. Then they create a specific guide RNA to recognise that particular stretch of a’s, t’s, g’s and c’s in the DNA. The guide RNA is attached to the DNA cutting enzyme Cas9 and then this complex is introduced to the target cells. It locates the target letter sequence and cuts the DNA at that point. Scientists can then edit the existing genome by either modifying, deleting or inserting new sequences, effectively making CRISPR/Cas9 a cut-and-paste tool for DNA editing. In the future, scientists hope to use CRISPR/Cas9 to develop critical advances in patient care or even cure lifelong inherited diseases.

How could it be used?

One potential application of CRISPR-Cas9 currently being investigated surrounds sickle cell anaemia, an incurable genetic disease with only expensive and harmful treatments available. The potential to undergo a singular procedure to completely cure this condition is revolutionary – a potential that could be applied to up to 8,000 more genetic mutations.

However, the capacity for this technology is so great that I find myself beginning to fear what it could be used to eradicate instead of simply treat. Concerns are already being raised by scholars with genetic differences, statements such as “our genetic conditions are not simply entities that can be clipped away from us as if they were some kind of a misspelled word or an awkward sentence in a document” being published in scientific news journals, highlighting that someone is still human despite their differences. The desire to completely remove a gene from society assumes that people with such genes are constantly suffering, their gene pool contaminated and inherently inferior.

Personally, I carry the genetic mutation for haemochromatosis, a condition that means I will most likely be subject to regular venesection in my later adult years. Whilst I have no affinity for my condition, viewing it as separate to myself and something that I would readily “delete”, having access to the support groups has shown me how it can bring people together and create a beautiful community – something that can make some feel positively connected to their condition. The idea that we could use CRISPR-Cas9 to not only treat genetic diseases but instead completely remove them from existence raises the question of whether this technology is a cure or a threat to these communities.

Ethical Parallels

A parallel can easily be drawn between the ethical issues surrounding the application of CRISPR-Cas9 in curing instead of treating genetic diseases and those restricting gene editing on embryos. As of March 2025, it is illegal to perform gene editing on embryos for reproduction in the UK, “designer babies” being labelled as a “ethical horrors waiting to happen” by news companies as profound as The Guardian.

Available: https://asm.org/articles/cultures-magazine/volume-4,-issue-4-2017/the-designer-baby-distraction (Accessed: 23/03/25)

 

As a society we must be careful as we toe the line between providing the best quality of life and removing people’s individuality, a line that could easily be crossed by both of these technologies. In the end, I struggle to distinguish the difference between editing an embryo’s genes to create what is considered an “ideal” baby, a process that is currently illegal, and “perfecting” the genes that somebody already lives with. Despite this, I also wonder whether it is truly ethical to leave somebody wishing for a cure when one is sat right within our reach.

But in the end, how would you feel if a fundamental part of what made you you could be so easily erased from existence?

Gene Editing: Does it Hurt those it’s Meant to Help?

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When we first looked at gene editing, I had mixed feelings. As some who studies engineering, I believe in innovation and using technology to help people. However, as some whose sibling has a disability, I thought about how the advancement of gene editing pushes the narrative that those with disabilities need ‘fixing’. Therefore, I decided to research the topic further.

First of all, what is gene editing?

Gene editing is the process of deleting, inserting or replacing genetic material within animals, plants and bacteria to alter their characteristics. It has different applications, but I’m focusing on gene therapy and using different techniques to treat diseases. The development of CRISPR-Cas9 has created a quicker, cheaper method for gene editing, leading to the current buzz around the topic.

Laws surrounding gene editing:

While it is illegal in the UK to implant a gene-edited embryo, in 2016, the HFEA approved licensing to allow gene editing of human embryos in research. Many of my classmates thought this was a good change as it could lead to more knowledge and potential cures about inheritable disorders like Cystic Fibrosis. However, is this any different from previous attempts in eugenics? The removal of genetics at an embryonic level will lead to the eradication of different, ‘undesirable’, traits from society. The practice may also lead to the relaxation of laws and the possibility of designer babies.

Gene therapy case:

While gene editing is often associated with inheritable disorders, it can be used to cure cancer. There have been successful results from a study in 2010, where a patient suffering from lymphoma underwent CAR T cell therapy. In this treatment, the patients T cells are collected and then genetically altered in the laboratory so they can recognise the cancerous cells. They are then put back inside the body to fight the cancerous cells.

Image of CAR T-Cell Therapy

Cost of gene editing:

However, gene therapies are expensive! In the US it is estimated that $20.4 billion is spent annually on gene therapies. If this money was spent on creating a more inclusive environment through education of the public and the changing of laws, this could have a far greater effect on the people already living with genetic disorders. Is it not better to create an environment where people can live well with these disorders, then create one which focuses on their removal?

Different opinions:

The NHGRI conducted surveys to investigate patient perspectives on gene editing. Many patients, especially those with Huntington’s, argued that gene editing should be used to prevent other people from inheriting the disease, despite the argument that it could isolate them from society and reinforce the belief that people with disabilities have a low quality of life.

Furthermore, Wellcome Connecting Science hosted a citizen’s jury vote based on the following question: ‘Are there any circumstances under which a UK Government should consider changing the law to allow intentional genome editing of human embryos for serious genetic conditions?’. All the jurors had been affected in one way or another by hereditary diseases and by the end most jurors (17-4) agreed that human embryos should be edited. While a small sample, this vote indicates that the scientific community and the legislators are listening to those who it truly affects, something which has previously been overlooked and distinguishes gene editing from previous, eugenic practices.

Final Thoughts

My summary of different arguments for and against Gene-Editing

I believe that the advancement of gene editing will help those with genetic disorders and provides cures which were previously unavailable. I think that this outweighs the negatives of gene editing especially considering many people with genetic disorders believe in the benefits. However, I think that the narrative surrounding gene editing needs to include those who are affected the most to make sure that it is continuing to be done in a positive way which doesn’t isolate people or become modern-day eugenics.

Can artificial organs solve the organ shortage crisis?

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Introduction

Several cases of end-stage organ failure have been treated successfully through organ transplantation. An organ transplant is performed if a specific organ is about to fail and must be replaced to maintain its functioning [1]. The NHS states that 8006 individuals are waiting to receive a transplant in the UK, and 3409 individuals have received one [2]. The demand is more than the supply of organs. Artificial organs are an engineering wonder that can be used to replace organ transplantation.

What are Artificial Organs?

Artificial organs are devices manufactured by humans that substitute failing organs. The devices are made synthetically or using a blend of synthetic material and living cells. Bioengineered tissues like liver scaffolds and artificial skin are typical examples, as are artificial hearts, kidneys, and lungs. Artificial Organs have the ability to address much of the problem involved in the study of organ transplantation

3-D bioprinting artificial organs[4]
Artificial organ heart [3]

Advantages of Artificial Organs

One of the major challenges is a lack of donor organs. Artificial organs remove the issue of reliance on human donors. This helps in the decrease in waiting lists and organ shortage. Occasionally, there is a possibility of organ rejection; to avert this, transplants need immunosuppressive medications, which can cause infections or cancer. The likelihood of this is ruled out or diminished by artificial organs produced from the cells of the patient themselves. Organ transplantation has a limited shelf life and needs to be transplanted soon. But artificially produced organs can be preserved until required and thus can be manufactured in bulk. Moreover, human donor organs come with ethical issues of consent and organ trafficking. Artificial organs present a solution to this dilemma, minimizing the ethical issues regarding human donors.

Disadvantages of Artificial Organs

Artificial organs are highly expensive because of the numerous complications involved in mimicking the intricate functions of natural organs while producing them that renders them unaffordable for most individuals. Even though it reduces the risk of infections caused due to immunosuppressive drugs, artificial organs require continuous monitoring and maintenance to make sure they are working at full efficiency.  Replication of intricate organs like the liver and kidneys is still in research. Similar to organ transplantation, artificial organs also present ethical and regulatory challenges. There must be a balance between patient safety and experimental progress. Hence testing artificial organs involves a long approval process for clinical applications.

Conclusion


Artificial organs are the future of organ transplantation and a possible cure for the organ shortage crisis. Nevertheless, there are various challenges that have to be overcome, including cost, technical challenges and ethical legislation. Organ transplantation cannot yet completely be replaced with artificial organs but they do hold promise for an era when life-saving treatments will be more universally available and feasible.

References

[1] Saidi, R.F. and S K Hejazii Kenari (2014). Challenges of Organ Shortage for Transplantation: Solutions and Opportunities. International Journal of Organ Transplantation Medicine, [online] 5(3), p.87. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4149736/.

[2] NHS (2023). Statistics about organ donation. [online] NHS Organ Donation. Available at: https://www.organdonation.nhs.uk/helping-you-to-decide/about-organ-donation/statistics-about-organ-donation/.

‌[3]https://www.biospace.com/mark-terry (2018). Artificial Organs for Biopharma Research and More. [online] BioSpace. Available at: https://www.biospace.com/artificial-organs-for-biopharma-research-and-more.

‌[4] Wood, I. (2023). 3D bioprinting artificial organs could become quicker and easier. [online] Drug Target Review. Available at: https://www.drugtargetreview.com/news/110266/3d-bioprinting-artificial-organs-could-become-quicker-and-easier/.

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fNIRs: The future of Cerebral Imaging

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Following the Sensor Lectures given by David Simpson and Russel Torah, the idea of optical imaging really stood out to me. Additionally, my passion for neuroscience and the brain brought me to cerebral optical imaging. Upon initial research, I noticed the most documented imaging techniques included MRI, CT and PET scans. PET scans, or positron emission tomography involves the use of a radio tracer that emits positively charged particles. When these particles encounter an electron, they completely annihilate and generate two gamma rays that can be picked up by the PET scanner. I had known about annihilation from physics at school, but I never knew to could be used to image the body! Since the radiotracer gets absorbed into more active tissues. This makes PET unique as it’s a way to image the functionality of tissues.

Looking closer into functional imaging, I came across functional MRI (fMRI) and fNIRs. While fMRI builds on current MRI technology, it involves the patient to stay still while completing tasks. While I knew this was still useful, I found that fNIRs could be used while moving around, so that, in my opinion it was much more potential in comparison.

fNIRs: A Quick Rundown

Functional near infrared spectroscopy, is a functional cerebral imaging method. It involves the use of near infrared light, between 700-950nm wavelengths. This is because once you get to the near infrared, the body is nearly transparent! Using a source, like an LED you pass the light through the body where the light follows a banana shape towards a detector just next to the source. I found this particularly strange, it made me think how light of all wavelengths of light pass through the body.

This is a short video on the underlying principles of fNIRs.
Advantages of fNIRsDisadvantages of fNIRs
High Temporal ResolutionLower Spatial Resolution
Non-invasive & safeSurface level measurements
PortabilitySensitivity to surface (i.e. hair, skin pigment)
Resistance to motion artifacts
Cost effective

Where are the images?

An real image of fNIRs/DOT technology

You may have noticed there aren’t any images being generated by fNIRs. This is because in order to generate images you must use Diffuse Optical Tomography (DOT). Simply put, DOT involves using lots of fNIRs sources and detectors and overlapping them to generate an image. Using these images in conjunction with a functional experiment, you can see which areas of the brain ‘light up’ when conducting particular activities. Since fNIRs can be used while moving, the sky is the limit when coming up with experiments to conduct.

The Promising Future of fNIRs/ Reflection

After discovering this promising technology, I felt compelled to write about it. I found its resistance to motion artifacts particularly interesting, as a biomedical engineer, they are something I have to deal with in all of my projects. Additionally, this feature means fNIRs has the potential to investigate infant brains as MRI and fMRI require the patient to stay very still, which can be very difficult for infants and children.

A researcher at the University of Southampton; Dr Ernesto Elias Vidal Rosas, is currently working on an fNIRs system that will tackle the issue of the lower spatial resolution, one of the main drawbacks of the technology. He inspired me to investigate this technology after discovering one of his written papers on the topic.

Personally I see this technology rivalling that of fMRI in its researching capabilities in infants not only due to the motion resistance but also the ability to conduct naturalistic experiments, potentially using technology like VR in order to investigate the brain’s activity when interacting with the world outside the lab. Additionally, the sensor could be used in other areas of the body for example, when placed just below the ribcage, “[fNIRs] has shown promise in being a more accurate, and less bias sensor compared to the gold standard”, Dr Ernesto Elias Vidal Rosas.

More Than Metal: The Science, Ethics and Reality of Facial Implants

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After learning about prosthesis (replacing a body part or joint) and orthosis (external support promoting healing) I reflected on my own experience. I had a Le Fort I osteotomy, a surgery to reposition the upper jaw. This doesn’t fit either prosthetic or orthosis categories, but is somewhere in between.  I knew metal implants were used for this, but hadn’t considered why or how they work.

The best person to learn from was the surgeon himself, so on my previous visit I interviewed with questions based on topics discussed in the lecture:

Me: What material was used in the metal implants and why?

Surgeon: Medical grade titanium, because its biocompatible

Me: How was the metal implanted to hold the jaw?

Surgeon: There are two stages. Primary stability is done in surgery, it’s the tightening of screws into the bone and then you find the bone grows in the threads of the screws and will grow in and over and around the plates, osteointegration it’s called and that’s the secondary stability

Me: How does it change for different sizes and shaped jaws?

Surgeon: There’s a website here, you can even find the whole guide if you want about all the screws they make and where they use them, different plates, different sizes. So, in the face depending on how much load it has to take you change how thick the plates are.

The website mentioned, which allowed me to visualise how the implants were used:

Website Link

He provided me with my x-ray, showing exactly how the implants are positioned:

The interview, the website and x-ray gave me a deeper understanding of the role of the metal implants. This led me to create this image, showing how the implants are used:

The interview revealed similarities between facial implants and joint replacements, particularly the porous material that I observed in the practical, which allows bone to grow into to stabilise.

Although biomedical engineers design implants to reduce failures, they do occur due to infection, breakdown between implant and bone, and migration of implant. The lecture on this topic made me curious if the same was true for metal implants in the face.

Further reading showed in a study of 485 orthognathic cases, 93 complications were recorded, including failure of fixation, requiring re-intervention (Zaroni et al. 2019). This made me reflect on the ethical considerations when offering this surgery. Unlike prosthetics, which are needed due to pain, orthognathic surgery, is often for aesthetics and ease of eating, both of which are not essential. This raises an ethical dilemma: if not needed, is it worth the risks, even if minimal?

The legal and ethical solution to this is informed consent. This video helped me understand what this actually entails:

I felt the NHS definitely achieved this in my case by repeated discussions over several years. However, I believe knowing the risks doesn’t compare to experiencing them. Something I found extremely useful before my surgery was finding others on social media who had had the same or similar procedures. It showed me the reality of recovery and possible complications. I believe informed consent could be improved by sharing first-hand experiences so I designed a template for a website which would facilitate this.

My Website Template

This would allow more in-depth discussions on what the recovery process is like and how other people experienced complications, rather than just the surgeons’ perceptions. Personally, the minimal risks were worth the outcome, but seeing others who had same procedure helped me make a truly informed decision.

The Amazing Spider Goat

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Can they swing from a thread? No, but they can produce them!

Several years ago, in my GCSE biology class, I first encountered the concept of gene editing and transgenic animals. Since then, I have become very interested in medical devices and biomaterials. Spider goats perfectly combine these topics and pave the way for potentially revolutionary advances in medicine and healthcare.

Spider Goats

Spider goats appear to be completely regular goats at first glance. However, they have a secret superpower: the ability to produce the spider silk protein in their milk!

How are they made?

There are various ways to produce transgenic animals. The way it was originally achieved in spider goats was by taking some skin cells from the goat and inserting the gene from the spider that creates the silk protein into the nucleus. The nucleus could then be removed from the skin cell and put into an egg cell, which was then implanted into a goat. The result is a goat that can produce the protein for spider silk in its milk. [1]

How is the silk extracted?

In an article written by T. Miller [1], she interviews Justin A., who helped create the original herd of these spider goats, and he explains how the silk is extracted from the goat’s milk.

Firstly, the goat’s milk is collected and frozen. Once the milk has thawed, it can be purified. The first step is to remove any fats and then filter out the smaller proteins. The spider silk protein is separated by selective precipitation (separating a solid from a solution [2]) and washed. Once a purified form of the spider silk protein is obtained, it is suspended in water and placed in a microwave. The purified liquid silk protein can be easily manipulated into its desired form.

THE AMAZING SPIDER GOAT (a short comic)

Spider Silk

Its structure and properties

The type of spider silk focused on by most studies is dragline silk. It has some interesting properties, such as having a good balance between strength and elasticity to enable the spider to catch flying prey. These unique properties means that it surpasses the majority of all natural and man-made materials [3].

Some of its most beneficial properties [3]:

  • Strong
  • Tough
  • Biocompatible (compatible with living tissue [4])
  • Minimally immunogenic (produces an initial immune response, but there are no long term effects)
  • Exceptional cytocompatibility (has very little effect on the structure and function of tissues it comes into contact with [5])
  • Slow degradation rate

Did you know? Spider silk produced by transgenic silk worms has been found to be 6 times tougher than Kevlar, which is used in bullet proof vests! [6]

These properties are a result of mainly two spidroins (proteins) that comprise the silk: MaSp1 and MaSp2. These proteins have very repetitive amino acid sequences that lead to the formation of specific final structures that give the silk its unique physical properties.[3]

Potential medical uses of spider silk

The use of spider silk in medicine is certainly not a new idea. In fact, it was even used by the ancient Greeks and Romans to promote wound healing [3]!

The possibilities for the biomedical applications of spider silk is what particularly interests me about this topic, since it relates to the majority of the modules I am currently studying. For example, both this module and the Orthopaedic Biomechanics module have covered tissue engineering and spider silk has shown great promise to enhance current solutions in this area [7]:

  • Skin regeneration and wound dressing
    • It has been shown to promote the healing of burns
  • Cartilage and tendon tissue engineering
    • Acts as a good scaffold because it degrades relatively slowly and scaffold shouldn’t degrade faster than the rate of new tissue formation [3]. It is also very biocompatible.
  • Neural tissue engineering
    • Has been proven to aid in nerve regeneration

Spider silk also has desirable properties for use in drug delivery and its high tensile strength and excellent biocompatibility make it a good choice for a suture [7].

Why not just use spiders?

  • The spiders are very territorial, so are difficult to keep [3]
  • The silk needs to be made in large quantities to be useful

Ethical concerns

As much as I see a great potential in the use of spider silk to improve healthcare, I understand that there are ethical concerns surrounding the use of transgenic animals. The procedures the animals go through are invasive (e.g. superovulation and taking tissue samples). It is also felt by some people that altering animals in this way is disrupting the natural order of the universe. Ultimately, it is important we take into account the welfare of animals when doing this type of research.

References

[1] T. Miller, “The Spectacular Spider Goat – Goat Journal,” Goat Journal, Aug. 12, 2021. https://goatjournal.iamcountryside.com/kids-corner/the-spectacular-spider-goats/ (accessed Mar. 23, 2025).

[2] “Selective Precipitation — Overview & Examples,” expii. https://www.expii.com/t/selective-precipitation-overview-examples-8536 (accessed Mar. 24, 2025).

[3] F. Bergmann, S. Stadlmayr, F. Millesi, M. Zeitlinger, A. Naghilou, and C. Radtke, “The properties of native Trichonephila dragline silk and its biomedical applications,” Biomaterials Advances, vol. 140, p. 213089, Sep. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioadv.2022.213089.

[4] Merriam-Webster, “Definition of BIOCOMPATIBILITY,” Merriam-webster.com, 2017. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biocompatibility (accessed Mar. 23, 2025).

[5] M. F. Sigot-Luizard and R. Warocquier-Clerout, “In Vitro Cytocompatibility Tests,” Test Procedures for the Blood Compatibility of Biomaterials, pp. 569–594, 1993, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1640-4_48.

[6] Bronwyn Thompson, “Bionic silkworms with spider genes spin fibers 6x tougher than Kevlar,” New Atlas, Sep. 21, 2023. https://newatlas.com/materials/silkworms-spider-genes-spin-fibers/ (accessed Mar. 23, 2025).

[7] B. Bakhshandeh, S. S. Nateghi, M. M. Gazani, Z. Dehghani, and F. Mohammadzadeh, “A review on advances in the applications of spider silk in biomedical issues,” International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, vol. 192, pp. 258–271, Dec. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.09.201.