POV: you donate your body to science and end up plastinated, posed like a ballet dancer, and touring the world in a glass box.

A Slightly Macabre Icebreaker

That’s (somewhat) the reality behind Body Worlds, the infamous exhibition created in 1995 by German anatomist Gunther von Hagens. Using plastination, a preservation technique he developed, von Hagens turned hundreds of real human bodies into anatomical art and took them on a global tour. Some call it groundbreaking. Others call it morbid, exploitative, or just plain weird.

From live autopsies on British telly to turning dead couples into NSFW dioramas, von Hagens hasn’t just flirted with controversy – he bought it dinner, dissected it, and stuck it under a spotlight like a 3 AM kebab.

Looks brilliant when you’re half-cut, but by morning? Bit dodgy, slightly greasy, and you’re left wondering what exactly you signed up for.

I first came across Body Worlds on social media. It creeped me out – but I couldn’t look away.

Not Just Skeletons in the Closet

Dead bodies might seem like a grim teaching tool, but they’re vital to modern medicine. Cadavers enable the understanding of human anatomy in 3D, not just in diagrams. No model can replicate the complexity, texture, or sheer messiness of a real human body.

And for bioengineers? That mess matters. Whether you’re designing hip implants or bionic limbs, you need to understand what you’re replacing. You can’t replicate function if you don’t get form. Sometimes, death is the best teacher.

The von Hagens Dissection

(Metaphorically Speaking)

Von Hagens didn’t exactly ease into the public eye. Body Worlds toured globally with plastinated bodies posed in athletic stances, or intimate embraces. At one point, he even proposed plastinating a terminally ill donor for a “futurehuman” exhibit. (Yes, really.)

The ethical backlash? Instantaneous. In 2002, von Hagens performed the UK’s first public autopsy in 170 years.

Officials said it might be illegal.

The audience called it educational.

The media? Lost their collective minds.

Supporters argue Body Worlds promotes public education about the human body, health, and mortality. But that defence wears thin when you’re staring at a peeled-back corpse posed mid-basketball dunk.

Consent, Law & Ethics

The real ethical elephant? Consent.

Von Hagens has long insisted all bodies used in Body Worlds were donated willingly. But things got murky in 2002, when he returned seven bodies to China after fears they belonged to executed prisoners. He wasn’t charged, but the damage was done and whispers around sourcing have never really gone away.

In the UK, the Human Tissue Act 2004 governs the law on human remains: consent must be informed, documented, and respected. But globally? Standards vary. Some places are… less rigorous.

Even if it’s legal, is it moral? Does consent still stand when the final product ends up as ticketed entertainment?

Personal Reflection

I already knew cadavers raised ethical questions, but this module sharpened that awareness. Exploring tissue engineering and body part replacement really highlighted how complex consent and anatomical use can be.

Do I think Body Worlds is cool? Yes. A bit much? Also yes. It walks a tightrope between science and spectacle… and sometimes jumps straight off.

Plastination sits uncomfortably between education and entertainment. At best, it teaches anatomy in a powerful, visual way. At worst, it commodifies it, teetering on disrepect.

In a world where our bodies become museum exhibits, how much say do we really have after death?

Literature

• Bohannon, J. (2003) ‘Plastination: putting a stopper in death’, Science, 301(5637), pp. 1173–1173. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.301.5637.1173.
• Silva, M.V.F., Monteiro, Y.F., Miranda, R.P., Santos, A.B.D., Bittencourt, A.P.S.V., Carretta Júnior, M., Menezes, F.V., Delpupo, F.V.B. and Bittencourt, A.S. (2024) ‘From highways to biological collections: plastination of wild animals victims of roadkill in the sooretama biological reserve, brazil’, Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology, 67, p. e24230044. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4324-2024230044.
• Tuffs, A. (2003) ‘Von Hagens faces investigation over use of bodies without consent’, BMJ, 327(7423), pp. 1068-c–0. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7423.1068-c.

What if science could slow down, or even reverse, the unavoidable process of ageing? Recent advances in the field of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering can improve 3D bioprinting which will hold the key to extending human lifespan and improving quality of life in old age. Lab-grown organs to bionic implants, researchers are investigating ways to replace or rejuvenate aged tissues, potentially turning back the clock on the human body ​(1)​.   

The Science Behind Aging 

It is estimated that the average human lifespan is 121 years. Reactive oxygen species depletion, general wear and tear and genetic instability, telomere shortening, mitochondrial genome damage, are the causes of ageing which reduces the lifespan by several years ​(2)​.  

The ability to repair and regenerate damaged tissues and organs is the foundation of regenerative medicine’s promise. In addition to having the ability to repair some congenital defects, regenerative medicine has demonstrated encouraging outcomes in the regeneration and replacement of tissues and organs (skin, heart, kidney, and liver) ​(1)​. 

How Engineered Body Parts Can Slow Aging 

Lab-Grown Organs for Longevity: Researchers are creating bioengineered and 3D-printed organs that could take the role of deteriorating livers, kidneys, and hearts ​(3)​.  

Artificial Joints and Bones: cartilage-bone tissues can be created ​(4)​.   

Bionic Eyes and Ears: Second Sight Medical Products created the Argus® II implant, which targets the retina ​(5)​.  

But while reversing ageing sounds like an exciting prospect, it also raises serious ethical questions. Should we pursue this technology, and if so, how do we ensure it benefits everyone fairly?   

The Ethical Dilemmas of Anti-Aging 

 Technology While the science is promising, reversing aging isn’t just a medical question—it’s an ethical one. Here are some of the biggest concerns: 

1. Who Gets Access? – Wealth Inequality & Social Divide: The possibility that only the wealthy can afford anti-aging treatments is one of the main worries. A two-tiered society, where the rich live far longer while the poor age naturally, could result from making reversal ageing a privilege of the wealthy. Fairness and access are called into question: will life-extension technology become just another luxury item, or should it be seen as a human right? 

2. Overpopulation & Resource Strain: The world’s population might grow rapidly if people cease getting older, placing tremendous strain on the institutions that provide food, water, shelter, and healthcare. Would populations need to be controlled by societies? In order to balance longer lifespans, would we need to restrict births? A world where people live much longer could have disastrous environmental effects if it is not planned for. 

3. Ethical Boundaries – When Should Ageing Stop? Should we reverse ageing even if we could? How does a person’s sense of self and mental health change if they are physically 25 forever? Would the amount of ageing that could be reversed need to be limited by governments? Would society be able to tolerate a future in which no one ever genuinely ages? 

Finding a Balance 

It’s becoming possible to reverse ageing with synthetic body parts; it’s no longer a science fantasy. But we have to strike a balance between ethical duty and scientific advancement. To guarantee that life-extension technologies benefit everyone, not just a wealthy selects few, careful regulations, fair access, and careful debate are required. While I am excited about the possibilities, I also believe that we should approach these advancements cautiously, ensuring that they serve humanity as a whole rather than creating more social and ethical divides. 

The ultimate question is not “can we reverse ageing?” but rather “should we?” 

References

​​1. Dzobo K, Thomford NE, Senthebane DA, Shipanga H, Rowe A, Dandara C, et al. Advances in Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering: Innovation and Transformation of Medicine. Stem Cells Int [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2025 Mar 28];2018:2495848. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6091336/ 

​2. Aging: The Biology of Senescence – Developmental Biology – NCBI Bookshelf [Internet]. [cited 2025 Mar 28]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10041/ 

​3. Rando TA, Jones DL. Regeneration, Rejuvenation, and Replacement: Turning Back the Clock on Tissue Aging. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol [Internet]. 2021 Sep 1 [cited 2025 Mar 28];13(9):a040907. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8411956/ 

​4. Wu JY, Vunjak-Novakovic G. Bioengineering Human Cartilage–Bone Tissues for Modeling of Osteoarthritis. Stem Cells Dev [Internet]. 2022 Aug 1 [cited 2025 Mar 28];31(15–16):399. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9398485/ 

​5. Stronks HC, Dagnelie G. The functional performance of the Argus II retinal prosthesis. Expert Rev Med Devices [Internet]. 2013 Jan [cited 2025 Mar 28];11(1):23. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3926652/ 

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Endometriosis is a painful, systemic condition where tissue such as the uterine lining grows outside the uterus, causing endoflares and infertility. It affects around 10% of individuals with uteruses of reproductive age, my mum being one of them. She was devastated thinking she’d never have a child but despite miscarriages and a tough pregnancy, I was born! After attending Dr. Nick Evans’ lectures on stem cells and TISSENG, I wondered if stem cell therapy could help treat endometriosis. Having witnessed first-hand the emotional and physical toll it takes, and given the lack of research on AFAB health, I decided to explore this possibility further.

Endometrial Stem Cells

During my research, I came across endometrial stem cells (EnSCs), which can regenerate or repair endometrial tissue. Given that 3/4 of the endometrium sheds and regrows each month, this isn’t surprising. Studies suggest EnSCs may even help treat Alzheimer’s by differentiating into brain cells! In the context of endometriosis, they could potentially regenerate damaged tissue, reduce scarring, and improve fertility. I’m particularly intrigued by this idea since it could offer a long-term solution, unlike current treatments such as painkillers, hormonal therapy, hysterectomies and other surgeries that focus on managing symptoms and often come with significant side effects. Having seen my mum undergo various treatments without lasting relief, a permanent solution would be a game-changer for her and many others.

Stem Cell Therapy Trials

The complexity of endometriosis itself poses a challenge to study since the behaviour of endometrial cells isn’t fully understood. However, recent studies show that stem cells, particularly EnSCs and iPSCs, offer promising solutions for regenerating tissue. These stem cells could promote natural healing, prevent symptom recurrence, and restore normal reproductive function. Several clinical trials are currently underway, and researchers are hopeful that these treatments could offer a long-term, safer alternative.

Ethical and Legal Considerations

While in theory this is all very exciting, important ethical and legal concerns must be considered. Some of the main concerns are:

• Lack of informed donor consent
• Potential for exploitation of vulnerable people seeking fertility treatments or low-income individuals to donate stem cells.
• Public taboos surrounding menstrual health

For this reason, I believe it is crucial the research is conducted responsibly and follows legal and ethical guidelines. Donors must be fully informed of the experimental procedures which adhere to ethical principles like non-maleficence, beneficence and patient autonomy and privacy upheld. Regarding public perception, our bodies are capable of regenerating entire tissues and potentially treating many diseases. Why should that be stigmatised and overlooked? I strongly believe scientific advancement outweighs this concern.

As for legal framework, I noticed some laws hinder stem cell research. Funding is often restricted, approval processes can be slow and variations in laws internationally can limit collaboration and delay the global development of effective treatments.

Final Thoughts

EnSCs are a major breakthrough in regenerative medicine and present a promising future for treating endometriosis. While more clinical trials are needed to assess their effectiveness, the potential for a long-term solution is exciting. It is key that these trials adhere to ethical and legal guidelines, with continued dialogue between policymakers, scientists, and ethicists to ensure progress. Given that endometriosis is a chronically progressive condition with a 3-11 year delay in diagnosis, developing a biomarker for early diagnosis and treatment is crucial. In conclusion, I’m hopeful that EnSC regeneration will be the breakthrough people such as my mum have been waiting for.

References:
https://www.endometriosis-uk.org/endometriosis-facts-and-figures

https://www.the-scientist.com/an-endometrial-stem-cell-pioneer-72146

https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/11/1/39

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8849430

https://plan-international.org/news/2022/05/25/new-survey-shows-deep-rooted-taboos-around-periods

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can impair an individual’s ability to interact with the physical world. As a nerve pathway to and from the brain, the spinal cord plays a crucial role in muscle control. In 2014, my mum suffered an incomplete SCI following a cycling accident, leaving her partially paralysed from the waist down.

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Attending the workshop ‘Practical Prostheses’ opened my eyes to the world of prosthesis and orthosis. We categorised devices as either replacements (prostheses) or modifications (orthoses) of different body parts. At the time, my mind wandered to the devices my mum used during her recovery. I remember being torn how some of her devices would be categorised.

I then realised how I have been quite ignorant to the importance of my mum’s orthotics. I had been viewing them simply as objects, without considering the ingenuity behind their design, or their significance to my mum. I took it upon myself to take a deeper dive into spinal orthoses.

Orthotics for SCI – Examples

Typically, orthotics for SCI are external devices, which support the spinal column during rehabilitation. They also are used to position or enhance the function of a hand, arm, or leg. Below are some examples (click the arrows for more).

Spinal Brace

Generally, a spinal brace immobilises the injured spinal segment, allowing the tissues to heal. My mum’s injury was thoracic (T4-T6 vertebrae), and thus her brace was a Cruciform anterior spinal hyperextension (CASH) brace (right). This brace limits the flexion from T6 to L1, but not lateral bending and rotation.

I feel that this highlights the importance of compromise when it comes to designing orthotics – one should only limit what is necessary, to ensure the best wellbeing for the patient.

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Ankle-foot Orthosis (AFO)

AFOs are particularly useful for patients who still retain a level of ambulation. They assist the ankle and allow the foot to clear the ground during the swing phase of walking. The particular model my mum uses (TurboMed XTERN) is shown below.

Below is a video from TurboMed which puts the importance of this orthotic into perspective:

Spinal Implants

Spinal implants following an SCI promote host tissue regeneration and nerve plasticity and reconnection. These can help to recover some muscle function. Following her accident, my mum had surgically implanted titanium rods to stabilise her vertebrae, allowing the facet joints to heal. Her X-Ray is shown below.

I mentioned earlier that I struggled to categorise some of my mum’s devices, and this one is no exception. I have concluded that her rods are orthotic, since they modify rather than replace the damaged vertebrae (I encourage discussion in the comments if you disagree!).

My mum also had a bone graft from her iliac crest. The lecture on orthopaedic implants highlighted a the INfuse device for lumbar spinal fusion. I was curious as to whether INfuse would be used in this operation today, rather than a bone graft. Researching further revealed that INfuse is not licensed for use in thoracic spinal fusion, due to negative side-effects.

The Effects of Orthotics for SCI

Now understanding the function of these devices, I wanted to explore the psychological effects they have on my mum, and some related ethical issues. She kindly let me chat with her:

Spinal_Orthotics_Interview_Small.mov

Conclusion

I learnt so much by simply sitting down and having a chat with my mum about her orthotics, it seems that they are a constant in her life. Writing this blog has given me a new outlook on SCI orthotics, as well as the importance of learning through hearing other people’s experiences.

From the perspective of someone who always found the human body intriguing, I never expected my own to become the subject of my fascination. Replacement joints helped make me feel 16 again and I could not imagine being told there was nothing that the doctors could do. This as well as the prothesis lecture by Alex Dickinsons guided me to look into the different types of surgery’s, how long they last for, and the statistics behind young patient joint replacements?

Joint replacements: What are the different types?

Total Hip replacement: This procedure involves the removal of the femoral head and the cartilage that lines the socket, replacing them with a metal implant that extends into the femur and a plastic lining that is placed into the socket. The implants have three types: metal-on-plastic, ceramic-on-plastic, and ceramic-on-ceramic, each with their own advantages. Additionally, hip replacements can be cemented or uncemented, depending on the patient’s needs.

Hip resurfacing: This is a procedure that occurs when the femoral head is trimmed and capped with a smooth metal shell. This is an alternative to a total hip replacement, recommended for younger patients. This is due to less damage occurring to the bone, preserving bone quality, and increases levels of activity when compared to a total hip replacement.

Advancements in hip replacement surgery: A personal perspective…

Due to experiencing a full hip replacement, I was inquisitive to see the procedure from a surgical point of view. This prompted me to reach out, which provided me with the opportunity to watch a total hip replacement surgery. This was very educating and I found it crazy that patients now experience this with only a sedative and nerve block as well as usually leaving hospital after a day. When I had my hip replacement I was fully sedated, had a nerve block, and stayed in hospital for five days. With my surgery they cut through the glute muscle, whereas with the surgery I saw they moved the muscles out of the way. This can, and has sped up recovery time. For there to be such a change in 5 years, it has made it clear that medicine is always advancing, so why should the age range for a procedure not change?

Why is there usually an age requirement for hip replacements?

The reasoning behind the lack of young patients with hip replacement was due to the lifespan of a prothetic joint, meaning patients may need the replacement revised later in their life. Only so many revisions can occur due to the bone quality. This means that there is only a certain amount of replacements you can have. typically the younger the patient the more replacements needed. However due to the materials used lasting for longer than ever more young patients are able to get replacement joints.

This led me to look into patients with hip replacement and the statistics for young hip replacements, in April 2021-March 2022 for every 100,000 hip replacements 0.8 were aged 10-14 and 3.1 were aged 15-19.

My Thoughts…..

Hip replacements are designed to help people stop being in pain, so why are we preventing that? My hip replacement was the best thing to happen to me and I am so much happier for it. I think that hip replacements should be offered to younger people when needed. People should not be told they are too young to receive medical treatment!

The Future and Ethics of Stem Cell Research

It is clear that the future of medicine lies in stem cell research, offering treatment possibilities for an enormously wide range of diseases using the body’s own healing mechanisms. However, stem cell research faces many ethical implications, posing a dilemma between morality and furthering scientific innovation.

What are Stem Cells

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to become many types of specialised cells. The ethical problems lie in collecting the totipotent embryonic stem cells, as it is seen that a potential or current life (depending on your viewpoint) has been ended for the scientific community.

Stem cells have been linked to the cure for Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s and type 1 diabetes plus all tissue damage-related injuries can be eliminated. They are also useful in the creation of ‘knockout mice’ that can assess the function of a gene.

Ethical Concerns

Ethical concerns are raised with the use of embryonic stem cells as the creator of the first embryonic stem cells, James Thompson says “If human embryonic stem cell research does not make you at least a little bit uncomfortable, you have not thought about it enough”.

Various arguments are suggested as to what makes a human life significant such as potential of life, viability, consciousness and sentience. This introduces controversy into the argument, as there is no correct answer to these questions. Is there a defined age when consciousness emerges? For instance, the earliest memory of my friend is folding origami in a dress aged 4, so can we be sure he had consciousness before then if he has no memory of it? However, if it was suggested that it is ok to kill a 3-year-old, the person who suggested it would be jailed, so is consciousness a spectrum?

Many say that it is ethically right to use spare embryos that are spare after fertilisation procedures, however, this leads to issues raised with the case of Julius Hallervorden. Hallervorden was a Nazi scientist that made discoveries that furthered our understanding of cerebral palsy and many types of brain cancer, however, he used the brains of already dead eugenics victims (that would have gone to waste else wise). Was he wrong to take this opportunity to research the brain? Or was he morally obligated to not let those samples go to waste to save more lives in the future?

These questions can be answered in the various schools of thought that are found in ethics. Aristotle’s ethics as virtue claims that morality is based on purpose i.e. a good soldier is one that performs their duties well. This would make Hallervorden a ‘good scientist’ and make his actions morally right. On the other hand, Kantian deontology is more critical of his actions as he ignored his duty as a physician to preserve human life and instead used them as tools for research.

Conclusion

The ethical question of the use of stem cells is a deep well of ethical mess with no correct answer. As we move into the future, research will be directed towards induced pluripotent cells, however, the questions over embryonic stem cells won’t go away as they will pose a huge role in comparing against the induced pluripotent cells to test their efficacy. It should also be noted that that technology is not developed yet, so we have no promise that these cells will be as effective as the embryonic versions. To conclude, embryonic stem cells are an incredible tool, but as is the nature of great tools, the more good it brings, the more evil it can bring.

The lecture on sensors fascinated me as to what extent technology could assist in understanding the human body.
This led me to research which took this a step further – not just sensing the body’s status but also healing it!

Chronic non healing wounds are a major issue affecting many people across the world.

The money spent on chronic wounds continues to rise in correlation with its reoccurring presence in the growing population.

There are a multitude of treatments available for chronic wounds, but they all have their own flaws in relation to optimised healing.

For example, skin grafts have been used for many years. Although I think these are a viable form of treatment, the necessity of surgery for therapy of the wound is an aspect I believe recent medical advancements should have overcome. Therefore, my discovery of new advancements was of interest to me!

New Advancements!

A new scientific treatment has created electronic skin! This is a bioelectronic system that not only monitors the wound through sensors, but also helps provide treatment through “anti-inflammatory antimicrobial treatment and electrically stimulated tissue regeneration”.

E-skin has continued to develop since its initial creation, with the technology now having the potential to overcome the tactile sensors of our own skin – with developments furthering sensitivity and receptor density, and response time.

For example, a circuit which is elastic both electrically and mechanically using stretchable interconnects has been produced.

AI Skin

Notably, further studies have discovered the benefits of Artificial Intelligence (AI) powered electronic skin.

AI algorithms help extend the limits of signal saturation – an issue which limits the current technology as the sensors can only manage low concentrations.

These machine learning techniques will ultimately improve sensor performance, creating an even more effective human-like skin!

Ethics…

Many people feel uncomfortable with the increasing presence of AI. This is particularly of worry when considering wearing AI daily! Concerns include privacy issues due to long-term monitoring, and mistakes which can occur in AI.

Despite the benefits of AI in E-skins having been proved significant, many people may question is it worth it?

I think I would be conflicted between the invasive process of already established treatment methods such as skin grafts, and the unknown which comes with AI usage. The potential for AI skin to be more sensitive than our own is a concept I think would sway me towards using this new technology. I think the use of E-skin is a promising advancement which may help many people!

Would you feel comfortable with AI powered skin?

Back in November 2024 I suffered a knee cap dislocation whilst playing a game of 7 a side football. After being sat in pain in Southampton General hospital’s A&E department for hours, unsure of what was next, my thoughts turned to all those facing this pain on a daily basis. One in four adults over the age of 55 report experiencing chronic knee pain, with an estimated 5.4 million people in the UK affected by knee osteoarthritis alone. It is not just older individuals affected by knee pain, however. Injuries to the knee occur at an average incidence rate of around 2.5 per thousand, with the highest rate of incidence occurring amongst 15-24 year olds. Overall, an estimated 8 million people in the UK are impacted by regular knee pain. As a result, over 100,000 individuals undergo either a total or partial knee replacement each year. Thus, it is essential to understand the evolution of this technology and how it can continue to improve through further innovation.

Evolution of knee replacements

This is a timeline of all the major knee replacements that have been developed from the 1890s to today.

The first knee replacements were developed by a man named Theophilus Gluck, and were made from ivory before being fixed into place using plaster of Paris. These failed drastically due to inadequate fixation as well as frequent infections. The next major innovations weren’t made until 1958 with the advent of the hinge knee, made from cobalt chrome, by Walldius.

The knee replacement above, developed by Walldius, was an improvement on earlier models but is still considered rudimentary. The solid metal knee lacked any compressive abilities and was only able to pivot in one direction. Consequently, whilst pain in the knee was reduced, stress was created in the lateral direction and patients were unable to fully return to normal life. This model was followed by the development of Geomedic prostheses in the 1970s- also known as condylar knees. These allowed for the preservation of the both cruciate ligaments-. a major advancement. This allowed people who suffered with daily pain to eventually return to a pain free life. Unlike with Walldius’ replacement, most patients were able to perform a wide range of activities that they engaged in prior to surgery, giving rise to a better quality of life.

The image above shows a computer generated image of a knee that has been worn down (left) and what the knee would look like after the installation of a Geomedic prosthesis (right).

https://www.arthritis-health.com/types/osteoarthritis/surgery-knee-osteoarthritis-video

This video explains how surgeries have changed since the invention of Geomedic prostheses, aiming to reduce the impact of surgery on patients.

Whilst the invention of the condylar knee marks a significant improvement in knee replacement technology, there still remain several drawbacks: This knee only has a lifespan of 25 years, meaning that patients may need several surgeries in their lifetime. This presents a particular challenge to patients who may be older when the replacement deteriorates, as the risks associated with surgery increase. Additionally, a long recovery period is still associated with this surgery and replacement type, some patients never reaching full recovery. Finally, whilst patients can return to most daily activities such as walking, higher intensity activity is still not possible. This means that sports and an active lifestyle are difficult- often impacting the patients’ mental health negatively. Further research into new alternatives is essential to managing these issues. We have seen before how innovation can improve the options available to patients. Now, more than ever, the resources and technologies exist to create a new form of knee replacement and unlock new possibilities for those who receive them.

References

Beeston, A. (2022) Knee replacement: how to reduce ongoing pain?, NIHR Evidence. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3310/nihrevidence_53522.

Chronic knee pain | The BMJ (no date). Available at: https://www.bmj.com/content/335/7614/303 (Accessed: 28 March 2025).

Mallen, C.D., Peat, G. and Porcheret, M. (2007) ‘Chronic knee pain’, BMJ, 335(7614), pp. 303–303. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39231.735498.94.

Patel, N.G. et al. (2019) ‘50 years of total knee arthroplasty’, Bone & Joint 360, 8(3), pp. 3–7. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1302/2048-0105.82.360688.

The State of Musculoskeletal Health (no date). Available at: https://versusarthritis.org/about-arthritis/data-and-statistics/the-state-of-musculoskeletal-health/ (Accessed: 28 March 2025).

Yasen, S.K. (2023) ‘Common knee injuries, diagnosis and management’, Surgery (Oxford), 41(4), pp. 215–222. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mpsur.2023.02.003.